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关于科学的定义（2-2）
Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)
The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress occurs in the world of ideas.
The process by which research programs are established,justified,and accepted throughout a scientific community are needed to appreciate science.
Criticism of scientific theories is based on empirical evidence,but abandonment of a research program involves extra-experimental considerations.
The demarcation of science from pseudoscience is objective in the world of ideas and propositions.Theoretical commitment is an issue of the world of mental states,beliefs,and consequences.
Scientific knowledge is never absolute.Appraisal must involve a series of theories; any part of the body of science is replaceable but only in a "progressive" way,i.e.,substitutes must successfully anticipate novel facts.
Whether a proposition is a fact or a proposition in a test situation depends on a scientist's methodological decision within the context of a research program.
Absolute truth may not be achievable by science,but scientific research programs may yet in the long run lead to ever more true and fewer false consequences and,thus,have increasing verisimilitude.
If science aims at truth,it must aim at maintaining consistency as an important regulative principle.Inconsistency must be seen as a problem to be resolved.
There are norms for doing good science.In addition to Hunt's criteria,research programs must be evaluated by their heuristic power-how many new facts do they produce and how capable are they in explaining refutations during their development.
A theory is "scientific" only if it has corroborated excess empirical content over its rival,i.e.,only if it leads to the discovery of novel "facts."
While experience still remains an impartial arbiter in scientific (measurement) controversy,the importance of decisions in methodology should not be neglected,
The empirical testing process provides the ultimately necessary but never sufficient grounds for refutation,No experiment,observation state,or well-corroborated low-level falsifying hypothesis can lead to falsification without the emergence of better theories.A historical emphasis is required,
Relativism/Constructionism (Peter and Olson 1983)
The process by which theories are created,justified,and diffused through a research community are needed to understand science.
Truth is a subjective evaluation that cannot be properly inferred outside of the context provided by the theory.
Science is rational to the degree that it seeks to improve individual and societal well-being by following whatever means are useful for doing so.
There are many ways of doing science validly that are appropriate in different situations.
Sophisticated Methodological Falsification (Lakatos 1978)
The direction of science is determined mainly by human creative imagination and not the universe of facts.Thus,the rational reconstruction of scientific progress occurs in the world of ideas.
The process by which research programs are established,justified,and accepted throughout a scientific community are needed to appreciate science.
Criticism of scientific theories is based on empirical evidence,but abandonment of a research program involves extra-experimental considerations.
The demarcation of science from pseudoscience is objective in the world of ideas and propositions.Theoretical commitment is an issue of the world of mental states,beliefs,and consequences.
Scientific knowledge is never absolute.Appraisal must involve a series of theories; any part of the body of science is replaceable but only in a "progressive" way,i.e.,substitutes must successfully anticipate novel facts.
Whether a proposition is a fact or a proposition in a test situation depends on a scientist's methodological decision within the context of a research program.
Absolute truth may not be achievable by science,but scientific research programs may yet in the long run lead to ever more true and fewer false consequences and,thus,have increasing verisimilitude.
If science aims at truth,it must aim at maintaining consistency as an important regulative principle.Inconsistency must be seen as a problem to be resolved.
There are norms for doing good science.In addition to Hunt's criteria,research programs must be evaluated by their heuristic power-how many new facts do they produce and how capable are they in explaining refutations during their development.
A theory is "scientific" only if it has corroborated excess empirical content over its rival,i.e.,only if it leads to the discovery of novel "facts."
While experience still remains an impartial arbiter in scientific (measurement) controversy,the importance of decisions in methodology should not be neglected,
The empirical testing process provides the ultimately necessary but never sufficient grounds for refutation,No experiment,observation state,or well-corroborated low-level falsifying hypothesis can lead to falsification without the emergence of better theories.A historical emphasis is required,
Relativism/Constructionism (Peter and Olson 1983)
The process by which theories are created,justified,and diffused through a research community are needed to understand science.
Truth is a subjective evaluation that cannot be properly inferred outside of the context provided by the theory.
Science is rational to the degree that it seeks to improve individual and societal well-being by following whatever means are useful for doing so.
There are many ways of doing science validly that are appropriate in different situations.
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