培根的英语介绍...求...

培根
1.弗兰西斯·培根（Francis Bacon ,1561—1626）是英国哲学家和科学家.他竭力倡导“读史使人明智,读诗使人聪慧,演算使人精密,哲理使人深刻,论理学使人有修养,逻辑修辞使人善辩（Histories make men wise, poets witty, the mathematics subtle, natural philosophy deep, moral grave, logic and rhetoric able to contend)”.他推崇科学、发展科学的进步思想和崇尚知识的进步口号,一直推动着社会的进步.这位一生追求真理的思想家,被马克思称为“英国唯物主义和整个现代实验科学的真正始祖”.
著有《学术的进步》（1605）和《新工具》（1620）等.培根尖锐地批判了中世纪经院哲学,认为经院哲学和神学严重地阻碍了科学的进步,主张要全面改造人类的知识,使整个学术文化从经院哲学中解放出来,实现伟大的复兴.他认为,科学必须追求自然界事物的原因和规律.要达到这个目的,就必须以感官经验为依据.他提出了唯物主义经验论的原则,认为知识和观念起源于感性世界,感觉经验是一切知识的源泉.要获得自然的科学知识,就必须把认识建筑在感觉经验的基础上.他还提出了经验归纳法,主张以实验和观察材料为基础,经过分析、比较、选择、排斥,最后得出正确的结论.
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一．培根生平
培根于1561年1月22日出生于伦敦一个官宦世家.父亲尼古拉．培根是伊丽莎白女王的掌玺大臣,曾在剑桥大学攻读法律,他思想倾向进步,信奉英国国敦,反对教皇干涉英国内部事物.母亲安尼是一位颇有名气的才女,她娴熟的掌握希腊文和拉丁文,是加尔文教派的信徒.良好的家庭教育使培根成熟较早,各方面都表现出异乎寻常的才智.12岁时,培根被送入剑桥大学三一学院深造.在校学习期间,他对传统的观念和信仰产生了怀疑,开始独自思考社会和人生的真谛.
在剑桥大学学习三年后,培根作为英国驻法大使埃米阿斯．鲍莱爵士的随员来到了法国,在旅居巴黎两年半的时间里,他几乎走遍了整个法国,接触到不少的新鲜事物,汲取了许多新的思想,这对他的世界观的形成起到了很大的作用.1579年,培根的父亲突然病逝,他要为培根准备日后赡养之资的计划破灭,培根的生活开始陷入贫困.在回国奔父丧之后,培根住进了葛莱法学院,一面攻读法律,一面四处谋求职位.1582年,他终于取得了律师资格,1584年当选为国会议员,1589年,成为法院出缺后的书记,然而这一职位竟长达20年之久没有出现空缺.他四处奔波,却始没有得到任何职位.此时,培根在思想上更为成熟了,他决心要把脱离实际,脱离自然的一切知识加以改革,把经验观察、事实依据、实践效果引入认识论.这一伟大抱负是他的科学的“伟大复兴”的主要目标,是他为之奋斗一生的志向.
1602年,伊丽莎白去世,詹姆士一世继位.由于培根曾力主苏格兰与英格兰的合并,受到詹姆士的大力赞赏.培根因此平步青云,扶摇直上.1602年受封为爵士,1604年被任命为詹姆士的顾问,1607年被任命为副检察长,1613年被委任为首席检察官,1616年被任命为枢密院顾问,1617年提升为掌玺大臣,1618年晋升为英格兰的大陆官,授封为维鲁兰男爵,1621年又授封为奥尔本斯子爵.但培根的才能和志趣不在国务活动上,而存在与对科学真理的探求上.这一时期,他在学术研究上取得了巨大的成果.并出版了多部著作.
1621年,培根被国会指控贪污受贿,被高级法庭判处罚金四万磅,监禁于伦敦塔内,终生逐出宫廷,不得任议员和官职.虽然后来罚金和监禁皆被豁免,但培根却因此而身败名裂.从此培根不理政事,开始专心从事理论著述.
1626年3月底,培根坐车经守伦敦北郊.当时他正在潜心研究冷热理论及其实际应用问题.当路过一片雪地时,他突然想作一次实验,他宰了一只鸡,把雪填进鸡肚,以便观察冷冻在防腐上的作用.但由于他身体孱弱,经受不住风寒的侵袭,支气管炎复发,病情恶化,于1626年4月9日清晨病逝.
培根死后,人们为怀念他,为他修建了一座纪念碑,亨利·沃登爵士为他题写了墓志铭：
圣奥尔本斯子爵
如用更煊赫的头衔应
称之为“科学之光”、“法律之舌”
……
二．培根的哲学思想
培根的哲学思想是与其社会思想是密不可分的.他是资产阶级上升时期的代表,主张发展生产,渴望探索自然,要求发展科学.他认为是经院哲学阻碍了当代科学的发展.因此他极力批判经院哲学和神学权威.他还进一步揭露了人类认识产生谬误的根源,提出了著名的“四假相说”.他说这是在人心普遍发生的一种病理状态,而非在某情况下产生的迷惑与疑难.第一种是“种族的假相”,这是由于人的天性而引起的认识错误；第二种是“洞穴的假相”是个人由于性格、爱好、教育、环境而产生的认识中片面性的错误；第三种是“市场的假相”,即由于人们交往时语言概念的不确定产生的思维混乱.第四种是“剧场的假相”这是指由于盲目迷信权威和传统而造成的错误认识.培根指出,经院哲学家就是利用四种假相来抹煞真理,制造谬误,从而给予了经院哲学沉重的打击.但是培根的“假相说”渗透了培根哲学的经验主义倾象,未能对理智的本性与唯心主义的虚妄加以严格区别.
培根认为当时的学术传统是贫乏的,原因在于学术与经验失去接触.他主张科学理论与科学技术相辅相成.他主张打破“偶像”,铲除各种偏见和幻想,他提出“真理是时间的女儿而不是权威的女儿”,对经院哲学进行了有力的攻击.
培根的科学方法观以实验定性和归纳为主.他继承和发展了古代关于物质是万物本源的思想,认为世界是由物质构成的,物质具有运动的特性,运动是物质的属性.培根从唯物论立场出发,指出科学的任务在于认识自然界及其规律.但受时代的局限,他的世界观还具有朴素唯物论和形而上学的特点.
三．培根的论著
1597年,培根发表了他的处女作《论说随笔文集》.他在书中将自己对社会的认识和思考,以及对人生的理解,浓缩成许多富有哲理的名言警句,受到广大读者的欢迎.
1605年,培根用英语完成了两卷集《论学术的进展》.这是以知识为其研究对象的一部著作,是培根声称要以知识为其领域,全面改革知识的宏大理想和计划的一部份.培根在书中猛烈抨击了中世纪的蒙昧主义,论证了知识的巨大的作用,提示了知识不能令人满意的现状及补救的办法.在这本书中,培根提出一个有系统的科学百科全书的提纲,对后来十八世纪的狄德罗为首的法国百科全书派编写百科全书,起了重大作用.
1609年,在培根任副检察长时,他又出版了第三本著作《论古人的智慧》.他认为在远古时代,存在着人类最古的智慧,可以通过对古代寓言故事的研究而发现失去的最古的智慧.
培根原打算撰写一部六卷本百科全书式的著作——《伟大的复兴》,这是他要复兴科学,要对人类知识加以重新改造的巨著,但他未能完成预期的计划,只发行了前两部份,1620年出版的《新工具》是该书的第二部份.《新工具》是培根最重要的哲学著作,它提出了培根在近代所开创的经验认识原则和经验认识方法.这本书与亚里士多德的《工具篇》是相对立的.
培根在结束其政治生涯后,仅用几个月时间就完成了《亨利七世本纪》一书,这部著作得到后世史学家的高度评价,被誉为是“近代史学的里程碑”.
大约在1623年,培根写成了《新大西岛》一书,这是一部尚未完成的乌托邦式的作品,由罗莱在他去逝的第二年首次发表.作者在书中描绘了自己新追求和向往的理想社会蓝图,设计了一个称为“本色列”的国家,在这个国家里,科学主宰一切,这是培根毕业所倡导的科学的“伟大复兴”的思想信念的集中表现.
此外,培根在逝世后还留下了许多遗著,后来,由许多专家学者先后整理出版,包括《论事物的本性》、《迷宫的线索》、《各家哲学的批判》、《自然界的大事》、《论人类的知识》等等.
四．培根在科学史上的地位
弗兰西斯．培根是近代哲学史上首先提出经验论原则的哲学家.他重视感觉经验和归纳逻辑在认识过程中的作用,开创了以经验为手段,研究感性自然的经验哲学的新时代,对近代科学的建立起了积极的推动作用,对人类哲学史、科学史都做出了重大的历史贡献.为此,罗素尊称培根为“给科学研究程序进行逻辑组织化的先驱”.
Francis Bacon was the son of Nicolas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Seal of Elisabeth I. He entered Trinity College Cambridge at age 12. Bacon later described his tutors as "Men of sharp wits, shut up in their cells of a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their Dictator." This is likely the beginning of Bacon‘s rejection of Aristotelianism and Scholasticism and the new Renaissance Humanism.
His father died when he was 18, and being the youngest son this left him virtually penniless. He turned to the law and at 23 he was already in the House of Commons. His rich relatives did little to advance his career and Elisabeth apparently distrusted him. It was not until James I became King that Bacon‘s career advanced. He rose to become Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans and Lord Chancellor of England. His fall came about in the course of a struggle between King and Parliament. He was accused of having taken a bribe while a judge, tried and found guilty. He thus lost his personal honour, his fortune and his place at court.
Loren Eiseley in his beautifully written book about Bacon The Man Who Saw Through Time remarks that Bacon: "...more fully than any man of his time, entertained the idea of the universe as a problem to be solved, examined, meditated upon, rather than as an eternally fixed stage, upon which man walked."
This is the title page from Bacon‘s Instauratio Magna which contains his Novum Organum which is a new method to replace that of Aristotle. The image is of a ship passing through the pillars of Hercules, which symbolized for the ancients the limits of man‘s possible explorations. The image represents the analogy between the great voyages of discovery and the explorations leading to the advancement of learning. In The Advancement of Learning Bacon makes this analogy explicit. Speaking to James I, to whom the book is dedicated, he writes: "For why should a few received authors stand up like Hercules columns, beyond which there should be no sailing or discovering, since we have so bright and benign a star as your Majesty to conduct and prosper us." The image also forcefully suggests that using Bacon‘s new method, the boundaries of ancient learning will be passed. The Latin phrase at the bottom from the Book of Daniel means: "Many will pass through and knowledge will be increased."
Bacon saw himself as the inventor of a method which would kindle a light in nature - "a light that would eventually disclose and bring into sight all that is most hidden and secret in the universe." This method involved the collection of data, their judicious interpretation, the carrying out of experiments, thus to learn the secrets of nature by organized observation of its regularities. Bacon‘s proposals had a powerful influence on the development of science in seventeenth century Europe. Thomas Hobbes served as Bacon‘s last amunensis or secretary. Many members of the British Royal Society saw Bacon as advocating the kind of enquiry conducted by that society.
Bacon Time Line
1561 January 22, born in London to Sir Nicolas Bacon, the lord keeper of seal, and the sister-in-law of Lord Burghley.
1573 April, enters Trinity college, Cambridge where he studies all the sciences then taught.
1576 Enters Gray‘s Inn with his brother Anthony. Travels with the Ambassador to Paris, Sir Amyas Paulet.
1579 Resides at Gray‘s Inn. Father‘s death leaves him penniless so he begins a career in law.
1582 Made outer barister at Gray‘s Inn.
1584 Takes a seat in parliament for Dorsetshire.
1591 Confidential advisor to the earl of Essex.
1593 Takes a seat in parliament for Middlesex.
1597 Publishes his Essays along with Colours of Good and Evil and the Meditationes Sacrae.
1601 February 8, Essex leads a plot to kidnap the queen in order to force her to dismiss his enemies from her court. The leaders were arrested and Bacon was instrument al in securing for the queen a guilty verdict at Essex‘ trial.
1603 Queen Elizabeth dies, succeeded by James I in whose service Bacon flourishes.
1607 Receives office of solicitor.
1608 Named treasurer of Gray‘s Inn.
1613 Bacon becomes attorney general.
1617 March 7, made lord keeper of the seal, the same office his father had held.
1618 January 7, made lord chancellor, and received the title of Baron Verulam.
1620 Publishes Novum Organum.
1621 Created Viscount St. Albans. Charged with bribery and found guilty upon his own admission. Fined forty thousand pounds, sentenced to the Tower of London, prohibi ted from holding office for the state, and prohibited from sitting on parliament. The sentence was reduced and no fine was paid and only four days were spent in the Tower but he never again held office or sat for parliament.
1622 Presents to Prince Charles the History of Henry VII. Publishes Historia Ventorum and Historia Vitae et Mortis.
1623 Publishes De Augmentis Scientiarum.
1624 Publishes Apothegms.
1626 March, while driving near Highgate, decides to experiment with the effect of cold on the decay of meat, purchases a fowl and stuffs it with snow. Catches cold and develops bronchitis, dying on April 9.